Concrete spalling occurs due to improper handling, often stemming from factors like water-to-cement ratio, timing of finishing work, and location-specific considerations. To prevent spalling, ensure the correct water-to-cement ratio to maintain durability. Finish work should commence only after surface water sheen disappears, avoiding excess moisture weakening the concrete. For cold climates, opt for air-entrained concrete for enhanced resilience.

Air-entrained concrete incorporates billions of tiny air pockets per cubic foot, which serve as miniature drainage channels for water to enter and expand during freezing, relieving internal pressure. This unique concrete type is produced using air-entraining cement or by adding air-entraining agents during mixing.

Stains on concrete can be removed using either "dry" or "wet" methods. Dry methods, also known as mechanical methods, use tools like steel-wire brushes for scouring, planing, grinding, sandblasting, or flame cleaning. Wet methods involve applying water or specific chemicals depending on the type of stain. Common chemical treatments either dissolve or bleach out the stain.